A basic component of fermented pickles (such as the classic Dill Pickle) is a brine. A brine consists of a mixture of salt and water (and sometimes sugar to speed up the fermentation process). The salt in the brine acts as a preserving agent to keep out harmful bacteria and draw moisture out of the vegetables. However, the salt ratio can not be too high since the "good" lactic acid producing bacteria will be killed. Dead lactic acid bacteria equals no fermentation of the sugars, which equals no pickles.
Typically in cooking the introduction of microorganisms, such as bacteria or yeast, is unwanted and leads to food spoilage (and some very sick individuals). However, much like in bread baking, fermentation in a much welcomed process when making brined pickles. This process is often much slower than using vinegar to pickle, but can be much simpler. What's easier than tossing a few vegetables, some spices, and a brine into a jar or crock and letting it ferment for 3-4 weeks? During this time period all you have to do is rely upon the lactic acid bacteria to convert the sugars in the cucumber (or other vegetable) to lactic acid. It is this naturally produced lactic acid that will help preserve the pickles and give it a delicious, unique flavor!
For those science-y (read: nerdy) types out there, here is what is occurring within the pickle brine:
The lactic acid bacteria are taking the carbohydrates (glucose) from the cucumber and sugar in the brine and converting it into CO2 and lactic acid in a mostly anaerobic process.
Further reading for those interested:
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